Examining Discrimination and Immigration in Sweden
A Compilation of Academic Literature
Summary
The purpose of this document is to provide academic resources concerning discrimination and immigration in Sweden.
Key points from each section
Integration and Discrimination
There is significant discrimination against immigrants and racial minorities in the labor market, the housing market, political systems, and education
Crime and Criminal Justice
There is a bias against immigrants and racial minorities in policing and criminal justice
The overrepresentation of immigrants in crime is due to environmental factors.
“Culture” is a very poor indicator/predictor of crime
The “Swedish Rape Epidemic” myth is based on a number of falsehoods
“No Go Zones” are not what they are made out to be, while police say that working in these vulnerable areas is often difficult, it is not the case that the police do not go into them or that Swedish law does not apply there
Economics
Immigration has historically been an economic benefit to Sweden, however, there is a large untapped potential that can be achieved through better integration
Policy Recommendations
I list a few important policy recommendations for dealing with the issues examined throughout this document
Preface
The concept of ”race” has been discarded by the scientific community as well as politically. Instead the concept of ”culture” has taken over the role of race as a concept for defining perceptions that exist about different people in the world
In some countries, individual events have functioned as ”eye-openers” in regard to the public debate on discrimination and racism, such as the killing of George Floyd
Sweden does not lack such events, but they have not functioned as ”eye-openers” in the same way. I believe that the most important reason for this is a widespread denial
The difficulties that many feel in regard to recognizing and accepting that discrimination occurs in today’s society is often based on a conscious or sub-conscious assumption that Sweden is ”different” from other countries. Sweden, it is popularly assumed, lacks a history of racism and oppression of ethnic minorities
Sweden’s treatment of, for example, the Sami and the Roma are clear examples in Swedish history that demonstrate the problems with this view. The fact that Sweden established the world’s first institute for race biology is another. Sweden’s history is a part of Europe’s history. The same racism that arose and spread in Europe, has thus occurred and occurs in Sweden
A combination of three factors has been important in the development of effective tools for counteracting structural discrimination in other countries. These factors are:
political leadership focused on counteracting discrimination
a strong movement against racism and discrimination within civil society
laws and other measures that are focused on changing behavior
This means that there is not a single solution, but that various measures and actors are needed at different levels.
A clear focus on the promotion of equal rights, duties, and opportunities, and an understanding that this in turn leads to the current goals of diversity and mutual respect, is needed. The strategy used should be a clearly defined anti-discrimination policy. This means a policy that places the actions of politicians, civil servants, employers, unions, and researchers in focus.
It is important to investigate the social and economic cost of ethnic discrimination. The costs can include such factors as the cost for the society in people needlessly being prevented from realizing their potential, the increased health costs related to physical and mental illness related to discrimination, costs related to the lack of trust in the police and other parts of the legal system and the lack of faith in government programs meant to help those in need.
It has been claimed that Swedish news media present an overly positive view of immigration and its effects on Swedish society. At the same time, there has been a shortage of empirical studies of how Swedish news media cover immigration
The results show that negative framing of immigration and how it affects Sweden are far more common than positive framings in Swedish Media
Integration and Discrimination
Labor Market
The challenges arising from immigration in so far as labor markets go is primarily caused by lack of housing, especially public housing
The performance of immigrants in Swedish Labor Markets is explained by the following reasons
By a high share of humanitarian refugees
By the existing high employment rates among the native-born population, especially among women
By Swedish labor market standards, there are few jobs that require less than an upper-secondary education, and the share of low skilled employment in Sweden is among the lowest in the OECD
By difficulties in translating foreign qualifications to Swedish ones
By difficulties in learning the Swedish language
By labor market discrimination against immigrants
Children of migrants, on the other hand, especially those who are native-born, perform relatively well in Sweden than in other European OECD countries. Within one generation a substantial part of the disadvantage their parents faced is eradicated. This is a good indication of successful integration in the long run
Research has instead been able to show that structural discrimination is decisive in regard to the exclusion experienced upon entry into the labor market as well as the subordination of immigrants in working life
This paper has provided evidence for the existence of extensive ethnic discrimination in the Swedish labor market
The applications with Swedish sounding names were preferred over applications with Arabic or African sounding names in all occupations despite CV content being identical
Only 2 out of the 15 most common occupations did not reveal discrimination that was statistically significant
There is however no reason to believe that a similar pattern would not be found in the occupations not chosen in this study
The fact that there is discrimination in 15 of the largest occupations makes it evident that a significant part of the unemployment gap between people with foreign-sounding and Swedish sounding names is explained by ethnic discrimination
An investigation into labor market discrimination in Sweden’s 2 largest cities
The study shows that there are notable inequalities in the Swedish labor market regarding access to employment for Swedish employment seekers with an immigrant background and a foreign-sounding name
The most immediately understandable presentation of the findings is to show the differential between the number of times a ‘majority’ tester needs to apply and the number of times an immigrant origin tester needs to apply to get a positive response in the application process
Across these 3 cities, minority males had to apply approximately 2.6 times as much as majority applicants in order to be preferred or chosen, and females had to apply approximately 2.7 times as often
This study measures labor force discrimination using two measures for hireability (competence and warmth)
The study investigated real-life hiring discrimination in a field experiment
Fictive applications were sent to 5,636 job openings
By experimentally varying whether the applicant had an Arab or Swedish sounding male name and whether he appeared warm and/or competent in the personal letter, they were able to investigate how individuating information related to warmth and competence interacts with ethnic hiring discrimination
We found substantial discrimination in that Arab applicants received fewer invitations to job interviews. Consistent with the stereotype content of Arabs, an applicant with an Arab sounding name had to appear both warm and competent in order to increase his chances
Interestingly, in order to be on (almost) equal terms as an applicant with a Swedish sounding name, he had to be both warmer and more competent
Indeed, it was not enough for an applicant with an Arab sounding name to appear warm or competent: he had to appear simultaneously warm and competent if he were to increase his chances to receive job interviews
This paper studies if Swedish employers discriminate based on the applicant’s gender, age, ethnicity, religious beliefs, number of children, weight or history of sickness absence by conducting a stated choice experiment
The results show that employers discriminate against applicants who are old, non-European, Muslim, Jewish, obese, have several children, or have a history of sickness absence
Moreover, they have quantified the degree of discrimination by calculating the wage reduction needed to make employers indifferent to these traits
The results suggest that to eliminate discrimination, an applicant who is born in Africa, the Middle Eastern countries or South America would need to get a wage which is around 16% lower than an applicant who is born in the Nordic countries
An applicant who is Muslim would need to get a wage which is 17% lower than an applicant who is Christian
Another striking result is the strong effects of ethnicity on job offer rates. The job offer rate is similar for applicants born in Europe, while the applicants born in Africa, the Middle Eastern countries and South America face a much lower job offer rate (minus 28%)
Applicants who are Muslim have a much lower job offer rate than applicants who are Christian (minus 30%)
It should also be noticed that these estimated probably should be seen as a lower bound of the actual degree of discrimination since the employers may have attempted to hide their discriminatory behavior
In summary, these results show that discrimination is prevalent in the Swedish labor market, that the magnitude of this discrimination in terms of the wage reductions needed to make the employers indifferent between applicants with and without some attributes are substantial, and that the discrimination, at least partially, is likely to reflect statistical discrimination
This study examines the extent of ethnic discrimination using correspondence testing. With the ILO measure of discrimination, using only cases where at least one individual is invited, they found net discrimination of 29.4 percent against the applicant with an Arabic-sounding name
In this paper, they measure people’s attitudes towards immigrants combined with data on ethnic discrimination from a field experiment in the Swedish housing market
The results show that there is a clear link between attitudes and discrimination
They find that there is more discrimination in municipalities where a high share of the population reports that they are negative to immigrants and less discrimination in municipalities where a high share of the population reports that they are positive to immigrants
In summary, the results suggest that the general public’s reported attitudes towards immigrants may be a useful predictor of ethnic discrimination. This implies that such measures, together with other evidence of discrimination, may be useful for policymakers responsible for designing policy initiatives to combat ethnic discrimination
Analysis of Afro-Swedish discrimination in the Swedish labor market
It is more difficult for Afro-Swedes to advance to higher job positions with higher status and salary which correspond to their educational attainment
There seems to be a glass ceiling which prevents afro-swedes from progressing in their careers compared to the rest of the population, even when Afro-Swedes have the same or even more qualifications than other candidates for the desired position
Even when differences in educational attainment, employment sector, and age are taken into consideration there exists a significant pay gap, disposable income gap, unemployment gap, and a high status/management position gap
People born in Sub-Saharan Africa are paid 25% less than the rest of the population
Afro-Swedes born in Sweden are paid 36% less than the rest of the population
Disposable income disparities range from 7-50% depending on educational attainment, with the disparity INCREASING as the level of education does
Afro-Swedes need to hold a doctoral degree to receive the same disposable income enjoyed by a person from the rest of the population with a three-year post-secondary diploma
Trends in educational attainment and unemployment do not hold true or do not hold true to the same extent for Afro-Swedes compared to the rest of the population
This is exemplified in the fact that attaining a 3-year post-secondary diploma actually becomes a disadvantage for this group
Afro-Swedes receive approximately 76-77% of the average salary for a managerial position held by an individual from the rest of the population
This is coupled with a severe underrepresentation in these positions
It is 10 times more probable for an individual from the rest of the population to hold a managerial position than it is for an Afro-Swede
Due to the categorization of the study, these results are likely to be an UNDERESTIMATION of the issues Afro-Swedes face
Sweden, like all other nations, is not excluded from a history of racism and colonialism, and public discourse around this history and its modern fallout needs to be discussed and addressed
Ethnicity is the second most common ground for discrimination (after disability) in Sweden in complaints received by the Equality Ombudsman (DO)—which is tasked with monitoring compliance with the Discrimination Act
Thus there seems to be reason to consider the possibility of recurrent racial discrimination against people of color in employment in Sweden
The unemployment rate of immigrants in Sweden with a non-European background is about four times that of natives. For Africans, it is five times. This is despite that “Sub-Saharan Africans” in Sweden, according to a recent cross-European minority and discrimination survey by the European Agency for Fundamental Rights, may on average be more highly educated than the general population
In contrast to non-European immigrants who came to Sweden as children and have received their highest education there, childhood immigrants from Western, Central, and Eastern Europe do not receive lower pay or otherwise lower returns relative to their education than native Swedes. “Sub-Saharan Africans” living in Sweden report among the highest incidents of workplace discrimination across the EU
The state party report points out that “Afrophobic” hate crimes are by far the most prevalent of any category and that Afrophobia/anti-black racism is an extensive social problem
Politics
There is an underrepresentation of minority groups in Swedish politics
In regard to participation in elected political bodies, as well as in voting, an increasing number of researchers are moving away from the research that ties the explanation to immigrants themselves. The reasons for limited participation are instead a problem where the answers lie in the political system and Swedish society in general
Education
Many students have experiences with racist attitudes and behavior from both students as well as teachers and other school personnel. A failure by the school system to counteract such behavior and attitudes seems widespread
The charter school reforms have contributed to an increase in school segregation
Free school choice exacerbates inequality
Housing
Even in regard to the segregation that exists in Sweden, an ethnic hierarchy can be seen. The idea that factors like the time a person has been in Sweden, their education and their employment situation alone can explain the possibilities to establish a housing career, can be rejected. A person’s labor market situation explains some of the segregation, but since some groups of immigrants have a worse housing situation in spite of a better work situation (and education and longer time in Sweden), it is reasonable to conclude that the surrounding society’s views concerning a person’s physical characteristics and culture affect their housing opportunities
Residents in Sweden with a non-European background, especially immigrants from Africa and the Middle East, tend to live in segregated low-income neighborhoods with other immigrants
The three largest cities in Sweden—Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Malmö—are today as segregated as Los Angeles in the USA
Among the results of urban segregation in Sweden are social stigma, feelings of hopelessness, growing social unrest and violence, and increasingly segregated primary schools with a strong effect on educational performance
Crime and Criminal Justice
Poor Socio-Economic Conditions Cause Crime
Research in Sweden (and other countries) has shown that racist discourse in the media achieves status as ”common sense”. The overriding picture of immigrants in the media is that they constitute a ”threat” or a ”problem”. Immigrant men are often pictured (and are thus mainly characterized) as prone to crime, and immigrant women are often pictured as passive and repressed. In this way, social problems are depicted as cultural problems and thus, instead of the problem being the Swedes and Sweden, the problem becomes the immigrant
At the same time, the media creates ”Swedishness” through the ascribing of negative traits to ”The Other”. Swedes are all the things that “The Others” are not. This can be seen when the media ascribes violence against women carried out by immigrant men to their patriarchal culture, while the violence against women carried out by Swedes is explained at an individual, psychological level
It also seems that immigrants run a greater risk of attracting police attention, of being placed in custody and being sentenced to prison, as opposed to a “Swede” in a similar situation
The Swedish research thus far basically points in the same direction as the foreign research that shows that structural discrimination is a problem in the legal system. This conclusion is also supported by the low level of confidence and trust that non-European immigrants have in regard to the police and the courts, as compared with ”Swedes”
Examining the gap in registered crime between the children of immigrants and the children of native Swedes in Stockholm
For males, they are able to explain between half and three-quarters of the gap in crime by reference to only 2 socioeconomic factors, parental socio-economic resources, and neighborhood segregation
For females, they can explain even more, sometimes the entire gap using only these 2 factors
In addition, they tentatively examine the role of co-nationality or culture by comparing the crime rates of randomly chosen pairs of individuals originating from the same country. They find only a small correlation in the crime of individuals who share the same origin, indicating that culture is unlikely to be a strong cause of crime among immigrants
Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Cites)
According to the Swedish Crime Survey, there has been an increase in reported sex offenses over the last three years. It is important to note that sex offenses comprise a broad spectrum of offenses, from minor incidents to very serious incidents such as rape
This can partly be explained by changes in legislation. As the definition of rape in Swedish law has broadened, it is difficult to compare the figures over time
It is also difficult to make international comparisons based on crime statistics, as many acts that are considered rape under Swedish law are not considered rape in many other countries
Furthermore, in some countries, if several offenses are committed on the same occasion, only the most serious of these will be recorded. In Sweden, in principle, every offense committed on a single occasion is recorded
Willingness to report sexual offenses also differs dramatically between countries. A culture in which these crimes are talked about openly, and victims are not blamed, will also have more cases reported. Sweden has made a conscious effort to encourage women to report any offense
Criminal statistics do not reflect the actual level of crime in a country since these are influenced by legal factors and the extent to which crime is reported and how crimes are registered
Ministry for Foreign Affairs (Cites)
In a report published in June 2017, the Swedish Police Authority identified 61 areas around the country that have become increasingly exposed to crime, social unrest, and insecurity. Of these 61 areas, 23 are considered particularly vulnerable. These areas are sometimes mistakenly called ‘no-go zones’
The Swedish Police Authority identifies a ‘vulnerable area’ as a geographically defined area, characterized by low socioeconomic status, in which criminals exert influence on the local community
This influence is linked to the social context of the area rather than reflecting a calculated intention on the part of criminals to take power and control the local community
While the Police Authority has stated that working in these vulnerable areas is often difficult, it is not the case that the police do not go into them or that Swedish law does not apply there
Study into racial profiling in Swedish Police
After conducting this study and reviewing the available data, the study finds that there is racial profiling in Sweden committed by law enforcement to some extent, even if they do not want to admit it
One has to take into consideration that racial profiling is not something that just law enforcement willingly or unwillingly uses, it also happens in hiring processes, surveillance, renting out apartments, housing segregation, and many other instances, thus it is a structural social problem
The more racial profiling occurs, the more victims of this practice feel not part of the larger Swedish society and indirectly segregation increases
The next step for Swedish law enforcement is to first recognize and admit that there is a problem, thereafter, hire a more diverse workforce if possible and implement training against discrimination, biases, and prejudices arranged by experts in that field. Other options that could also be relevant is the random screenings, impromptu checkpoint, and body cameras
The issue of racial profiling can have detrimental long-term effects such as segregation, the strained relationship between law enforcement and minority communities, decreased trust for government agencies and social exclusion
When it comes to criminal activity in Sweden, the sale of cannabis often makes up the “base income” for criminal gangs
The illegal cannabis market generates around half a billion kr annually value
Economics
A study focusing on the economic effects of immigration to Sweden
Immigration is an investment, the more is spent upfront the more will be generated in the long run
With the exception of the 90’s crisis, all immigration to Sweden since the 1950s has had a positive economic impact
If Sweden had not taken in any immigrants since the 1950’s Sweden's population would have been 2.5 million less than it is today
This means that without this immigration Sweden would be 900 billion kr poorer than it is today
To put it simply, immigration to Sweden between the years of 1950-2014 has generated 900 billion kr to the Swedish economy
This indicates that due to immigration the amount of money an individual in Sweden has to pay in taxes is much less than if we had not had immigration
Even these numbers are most likely an underestimation since the study did not account for the benefits that come with networking for example as the scale of the Swedish economy increases
Immigrants are responsible for 85% of the new entries into the labor market since the 1950s and without it, Sweden’s economy would be around a fifth of what it is today
During the year 2014, immigrant men in Stockholm had a higher employment rate than native-born men outside of Stockholm, indicating that labor market conditions are very important for integration
Furthermore, the lacking and segregated housing in the regions of Sweden with the strongest labor markets holds back the possible revenues from immigration
Investments in public housing and the desegregation of these regions would lead to improvements for both natives and immigrants
So even though immigration has been historically positive for Sweden, improving labor market integration would significantly increase the potential benefits
The number of people reliant on social benefits and allowances is decreasing
The literature on the effects of immigrants on economic growth, productivity, innovation, and trade is generally positive
Policy Recommendations
Apart from the first recommendation, the following are in no particular order…
Bringing topics of racism and discrimination into public and institutional discourse
The first step to solving a problem is to recognize it
Make anti-discrimination a central part of government, institutional, educational, union and business policy, a lot of which are outlined here
Housing
Access to affordable public housing across Sweden will improve the ability for Swedish inhabitants to enter the labor force and reduce segregation
The Re-Nationalization of Education
Access to free education where funding and logistics are organized on the basis of results and need rather than profit will drastically improve Sweden in a multitude of ways, including improved integration and lower crime
Credential translation
Being able to translate previous credentials of immigrants quickly and appropriately will help immigrants enter the labor force faster
Follow-ups
Follow-ups to people (especially women) who have finished the integration program will ensure better oversight and therefore better results
Countering labor market discrimination through proactive integration
Looking into methods such as anonymous job applications and proactive diversity programs would improve the immigrant labor market integration
Greater enforcement of anti-discrimination laws
The expansion of Arbetsförmedlingen (labor office)
Since immigrants don’t have the benefits of social connection that natives have the expansion of the labor office can fill in this gap
Wage subsidies
Improving incentives for hiring immigrants while not reducing the amount immigrants get paid would improve labor market integration
General improvement in integration (two-years too little, especially for women)
General improvement and expansion of the 2-year integration program will be a short term investment for long term gain
Goes hand in hand with the federal rather than the municipal funding of these programs
Legalizing Cannabis
When people lack methods by which to make a living legally they tend to resort to criminal activity
Since cannabis makes up the “base” income for a lot of gangs its legalisation would significantly weaken the strength and attractiveness of criminal gangs
Legalizing cannabis would also generate significant tax revenue that can be used for further integration programs and efforts
whats up man! the world needs your intellect!